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SYSTEM
System (from the Latin (systēma), and this from the Greek σύστημα (sustēma)) is an assemblage of entities/objects, real or abstract, comprising a whole with each and every component/element interacting or related to another one. Any object which has no relationship with any other element of the system is not a component of that system. A subsystem is then a set of elements which is a system itself and a part of the whole system.
Every division or aggregation of real objects/entities into systems is arbitrary, therefore it is a subjective abstract concept.
The scientific research field which is engaged in the transdisciplinary study of universal system-based properties of the World is the General System Theory/Systems science and recently Systemics, it investigates the abstract properties of the matter and mind, their organization, searching concepts and principles which are independent on the specific domain, independent of their substance, type, or spatial or temporal scales of existence.
Essential aspect of every system-based theory or engineering, is its set of axiomatic assumptions (explicit or implicit) which lead to such unification concepts as: meta-ontology, meta-systems and meta-theories. They depend on the universal properties of systems of systems and are the domain of the practical interest and continuous research (TOGA meta-theory, A.M. Gadomski,1993).
Background
Within arbitrary boundaries, a collection of interrelated components (or, subsystems) may be declared a system and may further be abstracted to be declared a component of a larger system. Systems enable "activities" to be performed. (It is tempting to say that systems enable "things" to be done— but that is confusing in this context). An engineering example of a system is often a circuit or a physical series (but such a system does not have to physically exist).
Depending on the type of system, a system can often be distinguished from individual (simple) machines, elements or processes of that system by the number, arrangements and complexity of those elements. For example, a pulley is a machine, but an elevator, which incorporates pulleys (amongst other components), is a system. Going to the doctor is a process, but health care is a system.
In the natural world, one would declare that there are systems. For example, the solar system of eight planets orbiting the sun. Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis Book 3 is De mundi systemate (On the system of the world). In the human body, such systems are referred to as the nervous system, the circulatory system, the digestive system, the reproductive system, and the respiratory system. The entire body is also referred to as a system in terms of physiology.
In addition, all so-called "things"—namely objects—are actually systems. For example, a cup is an object, but it is also a system for holding hot or cold liquid, or other material. The cup has a certain shape and a handle, it is made of non-porous material and so on, and it is put together in such a way as to provide a useful function. Describing this thing makes up information, and defines a system. It might be supposed that there can be an infinite regression or progression of such systems, but in a finite world, all things come to an end (perhaps at the level of quarks, leptons, and photons at one end and the Universe at the other).
A number of material points considered simultaneously is called a system of material points, or briefly a system, if some common principle may be said to govern the collection.
(H.Hertz 1956, p. 46, §6)
Types of systems
There are many criteria for the classification and taxonomies of systems, for example, we may distinguish four groups of systems, which are;
- Natural Systems: These are systems like the ecosystem, blood system and solar system.
- Human-made System: These systems include not designed and designed physical systems such as: machines, industrial plants, telecommunication infrastructure networks, computer storage systems and modern sculptures.
- Abstract Systems: Every conceptual model is an abstract system, for example, traffic system models and computer programs are both types of modeled systems. They can be the product of identification, design or invention.
- Descriptive and Normative Systems: They relates to human and other living system activity, an example of these are; plans, bus/train timetable, ethical systems.
In parallel, there are numerous types of systems according to different meta-systemic criteria:
- An open system has a discrete number of interfaces to allow the exchange of matter, energy or information with its surrounding environment. Therefore, a system may be said to be any assemblage which accepts an input, processes it, and produces an output. (see Information Processor) That is, an open system has an external interface in which matter, energy, information goes from outside to one or more internal element(s), which transduces this input via the original or other element(s) (e.g., by passing it among internal elements via internal interfaces), and an external interface through which results flow from some one or more internal element(s) to outside the system.
- A closed system is self-contained in such a way that outside events have no influence upon the system. In this case there is no possible exchange of matter, energy or information with the surrounding environment. After a period of time all internal activity within a closed system will stop.
In practice many systems have a variable relation with their surroundings (Dynamic systems). For example a prison is a closed system because the prisoners can't get out, and the wardens spend most of their time at the prison. However it is also an open system, because it depends on outside factors and the prisoners and wardens do go outside.
- Conceptual systems are abstract products of mind, they are made up of ideas and information. Conceptual systems generally exist to aid in envisioning and formulating goals, and may be used to model physical systems.
- Living systems refer to parts or a complete living organism, members of a group of organisms, or groups of organisms that interact with other groups of organisms. Living systems interact with inanimate elements of its environment. Living systems are the main object of study of biology:
Cell -- Organ system -- Animal -- Ecosystem
Human systems are a sub-system of the living systems which are particular case study of sociology and psychology as their present form, and anthropology studies their evolution:
Human -- Couple -- Family -- Society -- Civilization
A system may also be a set of rules for governing behavior or organisation. For example:
- Laws are a system which governs human social behavior.
- Grammar is a system which governs language usage (in this case, the grammatical elements are the system elements).
- Cladistics is a system for classifying evolutionary relationships among living things based on derived similarity.
Summary: In practice, any commonly accepted congruent taxonomy/classification of all possible systems does not exist yet.
Systems in information and computer science
In computer science and information science, system could also be a method or an algorithm. Again, an example will illustrate: There are systems of counting, as with Roman numerals, and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the Dewey Decimal System is an example. This still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this case in order to facilitate the flow of information).
System can also be used referring to a framework, be it software or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run, see platform.
Systems in engineering
In engineering, concept system is usually well defined. It is used in numerous different concrete contexts, and it is the subject of the basic engineering activities, such as: planning, design, implementation, building and maintaining. Systems engineering is also a generalized theoretical branch of the different engineering approaches and paradigms. The design of real-world complex engineering systems requires a meta-modeling framework, what has been proposed by Adam Maria Gadomski, 1988, using the computational decomposition of the relation between System and its Goal in terms of system, process, function, goal interrelation layers. This conceptualization integrates subjective designer requirements with the objective properties of real-world systems and available technological components.
Systems in socio-cognitive sciences and management research
Social and cognitive sciences recognize systems in human person models and in human societies. They are: human brain functions, human mental processes and as well as, normative ethics systems and social/cultural behavioral patterns.
In management science,operations research and organizational development (OD), human organizations are viewed as systems (conceptual systems) of interacting components such as sub-systems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex processes and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist Peter Senge developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book The Fifth Discipline. In more abstract, systemics and socio-cognitive perspective, these concepts are generalized to, so called, intelligence-based systems, what enables to analyze semi-formally different heterogeneous organizations and their pathological properties, such as: organization vulnerabilities, crisis and reorganizations/changes,
Systems thinking is a style of thinking/reasoning and problem solving. It starts from the recognition of system properties in a given problem. It can be a leadership competency. Some people can think globally while acting locally. Such people consider the potential consequences of their decisions on other parts of larger systems. This is also a basis of systemic coaching in psychology.
Organizational theorists such as Margaret Wheatley have also described the workings of organizational systems in new contexts metaphoric contexts, such as quantum physics, chaos theory, and the self-organization of systems.
See also
References
- Hertz H.(1956) Principles of Mechanics, Dover, U.S.A.
- Gadomski A.M.(2002) TOGA Systemic Approach to the Global Specification - the ITEA SOPHOCLES Project, [1] Tech. Report, ENEA Italian Research Agency.
- Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. (2006)Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Compact Macromodels of the World System Growth. Moscow: URSS. ISBN 5-484-00414-4 [2].
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